Rationale
原理
An increasing proportion of global coffee production, roughly 40% as of 2013 (Panhuysen & Pierrot, 2013) originates from farms following some form of voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). These programs are expanding into multi-billion dollar global activities, providing industry and consumers with the comfort that the coffee they trade and consume has been produced according to environmental and ethical standards. Yet there is little empirical evidence to suggest these programs have positive outcomes for smallholders. This paper quantifies the impacts of 4C certification, recognized as a relatively more accessible standard,to ascertain the capacity of VSS to improve smallholder livelihoods.
全球咖啡產量的比例越來越大，2013年約爲40％（Panhuysen＆Pierrot，2013）源於遵循某種形式的自願可持續性標準（VSS）的農場。 這種自願可持續性標準的農場正在擴展爲數十億美元的全球活動，讓行業和消費者滿意的是他們貿易和消費的咖啡是環境友好和符合道德標準生產的。 然而， 沒有多少經驗證據表明這些爲小農戶帶來了積極成果。 本文量化了4C認證的影響，被認爲是一個相對更容易獲得的標準，以確定自願可持續性標準改善小農生計的程度。
Methods
研究方法
The paper compares two groups of farmers, one 4C certified and an uncertified control group, measuring the average treatment effect of certification on a collection of outcome variables. We use a quasi-experimental method relying on propensity score matching (PSM) to control for selection bias. We draw on extensive survey data, of over 1600 households drawn from about 100 farmer groups, covering a broad array of indicators including livelihood determinants, farming practices, market characteristicsand subjective assessments. In addition to the main cross-section from 2015, panel data can be constructed for a number of indicators through leveraging administrative records, allowing us to employ a differences-in-differences impacts estimator.
本文比較了兩組農民，一組4C認證和一組未認證的對照組，測量認證對採用了平均自願可持續性標準一組結果變量的效果。 我們 用一個準實驗方法依靠傾向評分匹配（PSM）來控制選擇偏差。我們利用廣泛的調查數據，來自約100個農民團體的1600多戶家庭，涉及的指標包括生計決定因素、耕作方式、市場特點和主觀評估。 除了2015年的主要橫截面之外，可以通過利用行政記錄爲多個指標構建面板數據，從而使我們能夠利用雙重差分影響估計。
Results
結果
This paper makes several contributions to knowledge within the global coffee community by, 1. Contributing empirically to the literature surrounding VSS; while several studies have examined certification qualitatively few provide a counterfactual fora causal impact evaluation;2. Advancing knowledge of 4C certification,particularly when not confounded with the introduction of specialty coffee varieties or reputable growing regions; and,3. Contributing to knowledge of the Indonesian coffee sector,which is particularly uniquedue to high smallholder density and weak internal organization(Neilson, 2015).
本文對全球咖啡界有幾下幾方面貢獻:1、 給VSS文學 提供了實證支持 ; 雖然幾項研究定性地審查了證書,但很少提供反事實因果影響評價; 2. 推進4C認證方面的知識，尤其是不與引進精品咖啡品種或聲譽良好的生長區混淆;3 促進印度尼西亞咖啡部門的知識，這對於高小農密度和薄弱的內部組織尤其是獨一無二的（尼爾森，2015年）。
Conclusions & Perspectives
結論和展望
VSS remain a popular tool to improve smallholder livelihoods, however without proper knowledge of their effectiveness andlimitations standards will remain poorly understood and thus poorly targeted. Importantly this could lead to muted or unintended impacts onsmallholders and their communities. The insights from this paper could provide important inputs to the global debate on the continued evolution of standards.
VSS仍然是改善小農生計的一種流行工具，但是如果沒有對其有效性和限制標準的適當瞭解，則會由於很少了解導致目標不明確。 重要的是，重要的是，這可能導致對小農及其社區的靜默或無意的影響。 本文的見解可以爲關於標準的持續演變的全球辯論提供重要支持。
Reference
1.Neilson, J., 2015. Towards a more competitive and dynamic value chain for Indonesian coffee: Working paper 7, Report produced under the World Bank Technical Assistance Program on Competitiveness and Sustainability of Beverage Crops
2.Panhuysen, S. & Pierrot, J., 2014. Coffee Barometer 2014, Report produced by HIVOS, IUCN Nederland, Oxfam Novib, Solidaridad, WWF.
